Process Owner¶

The first set of functions to cover are used for determining and changing the process owner ids. These are mostly useful to authors of daemons or special system programs which need to change permission level rather than running as root. I won’t try to explain all of the intricate details of Unix security, process owners, etc. in this brief post. See the References list below for more details.

Let’s start with a script to show the real and effective user and group information for a process, and then change the effective values. This is similar to what a daemon would need to do when it starts as root during a system boot, to lower the privilege level and run as a different user. If you download the examples to try them out, you should change the TEST_GID and TEST_UID values to match your user.

import os

TEST_GID=501
TEST_UID=527

def show_user_info():
    print 'Effective User  :', os.geteuid()
    print 'Effective Group :', os.getegid()
    print 'Actual User     :', os.getuid(), os.getlogin()
    print 'Actual Group    :', os.getgid()
    print 'Actual Groups   :', os.getgroups()
    return

print 'BEFORE CHANGE:'
show_user_info()
print

try:
    os.setegid(TEST_GID)
except OSError:
    print 'ERROR: Could not change effective group.  Re-run as root.'
else:
    print 'CHANGED GROUP:'
    show_user_info()
    print

try:
    os.seteuid(TEST_UID)
except OSError:
    print 'ERROR: Could not change effective user.  Re-run as root.'
else:
    print 'CHANGE USER:'
    show_user_info()
    print

When run as myself (527, 501) on OS X, I see this output:

$ python os_process_user_example.py
BEFORE CHANGE:
Effective User  : 527
Effective Group : 501
Actual User     : 527 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 501
Actual Groups   : [501, 102, 204, 100, 98, 80, 61, 12, 500, 101]

CHANGED GROUP:
Effective User  : 527
Effective Group : 501
Actual User     : 527 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 501
Actual Groups   : [501, 102, 204, 100, 98, 80, 61, 12, 500, 101]

CHANGE USER:
Effective User  : 527
Effective Group : 501
Actual User     : 527 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 501
Actual Groups   : [501, 102, 204, 100, 98, 80, 61, 12, 500, 101]

Notice that the values do not change. Since I am not running as root, processes I start cannot change their effective owner values. If I do try to set the effective user id or group id to anything other than my own, an OSError is raised.

Now let’s look at what happens when we run the same script using sudo to start out with root privileges:

$ sudo python os_process_user_example.py
BEFORE CHANGE:
Effective User  : 0
Effective Group : 0
Actual User      : 0 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 0
Actual Groups   : [0, 1, 2, 8, 29, 3, 9, 4, 5, 80, 20]

CHANGED GROUP:
Effective User  : 0
Effective Group : 501
Actual User      : 0 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 0
Actual Groups   : [501, 1, 2, 8, 29, 3, 9, 4, 5, 80, 20]

CHANGE USER:
Effective User  : 527
Effective Group : 501
Actual User      : 0 dhellmann
Actual Group    : 0
Actual Groups   : [501, 1, 2, 8, 29, 3, 9, 4, 5, 80, 20]

In this case, since we start as root, we can change the effective user and group for the process. Once we change the effective UID, the process is limited to the permissions of that user. Since non-root users cannot change their effective group, we need to change the group first then the user.

Besides finding and changing the process owner, there are functions for determining the current and parent process id, finding and changing the process group and session ids, as well as finding the controlling terminal id. These can be useful for sending signals between processes or for complex applications such as writing your own command line shell.

Process Environment¶

Another feature of the operating system exposed to your program though the os module is the environment. Variables set in the environment are visible as strings that can be read through os.environ or os.getenv(). Environment variables are commonly used for configuration values such as search paths, file locations, and debug flags. Let’s look at an example of retrieving an environment variable, and passing a value through to a child process.

import os

print 'Initial value:', os.environ.get('TESTVAR', None)
print 'Child process:'
os.system('echo $TESTVAR')

os.environ['TESTVAR'] = 'THIS VALUE WAS CHANGED'

print
print 'Changed value:', os.environ['TESTVAR']
print 'Child process:' 
os.system('echo $TESTVAR')

del os.environ['TESTVAR']

print
print 'Removed value:', os.environ.get('TESTVAR', None)
print 'Child process:' 
os.system('echo $TESTVAR')

The os.environ object follows the standard Python mapping API for retrieving and setting values. Changes to os.environ are exported for child processes.

$ python -u os_environ_example.py
Initial value: None
Child process:


Changed value: THIS VALUE WAS CHANGED
Child process:
THIS VALUE WAS CHANGED

Removed value: None
Child process:

Process Working Directory¶

The notion of the “current working directory” for a process is a concept from operating systems with hierarchical filesystems. This is the directory on the filesystem the process uses as the starting location when files are accessed with relative paths.

import os

print 'Starting:', os.getcwd()
print os.listdir(os.curdir)

print 'Moving up one:', os.pardir
os.chdir(os.pardir)

print 'After move:', os.getcwd()
print os.listdir(os.curdir)

Note the use of os.curdir and os.pardir to refer to the current and parent directories in a portable manner. The output should not be surprising:

$ python os_cwd_example.py
Starting: /Users/dhellmann/Documents/PyMOTW/src/PyMOTW/os
['__init__.py', 'index.rst', 'os_access.py', 'os_cwd_example.py', 'os_directories.py', 'os_environ_example.py', 'os_exec_example.py', 'os_fork_example.py', 'os_kill_example.py', 'os_popen.py', 'os_popen2.py', 'os_popen2_seq.py', 'os_popen3.py', 'os_popen4.py', 'os_process_id_example.py', 'os_process_user_example.py', 'os_spawn_example.py', 'os_stat.py', 'os_stat_chmod.py', 'os_stat_chmod_example.txt', 'os_symlinks.py', 'os_system_background.py', 'os_system_example.py', 'os_system_shell.py', 'os_wait_example.py', 'os_waitpid_example.py', 'os_walk.py']
Moving up one: ..
After move: /Users/dhellmann/Documents/PyMOTW/src/PyMOTW
['__init__.py', 'abc', 'about.rst', 'anydbm', 'argparse', 'array', 'articles', 'asynchat', 'asyncore', 'atexit', 'base64', 'BaseHTTPServer', 'bisect', 'builtins.rst', 'bz2', 'calendar', 'cc-by-nc-sa.png', 'cgitb', 'cmd', 'codecs', 'collections', 'commands', 'compileall', 'compression.rst', 'ConfigParser', 'contents.rst', 'contextlib', 'Cookie', 'copy', 'copyright.rst', 'cryptographic.rst', 'csv', 'data_types.rst', 'datetime', 'dbhash', 'dbm', 'decimal', 'dev_tools.rst', 'difflib', 'dircache', 'dis', 'docs', 'doctest', 'dumbdbm', 'EasyDialogs', 'exceptions', 'feed.png', 'file_access.rst', 'file_formats.rst', 'filecmp', 'fileinput', 'fnmatch', 'fractions', 'frameworks.rst', 'functools', 'gc', 'gdbm', 'generic_os.rst', 'getopt', 'getpass', 'gettext', 'glob', 'grp', 'gzip', 'hashlib', 'heapq', 'history.rst', 'hmac', 'i18n.rst', 'imaplib', 'imp', 'importing.rst', 'inspect', 'internet_data.rst', 'internet_protocols.rst', 'ipc.rst', 'itertools', 'json', 'language.rst', 'linecache', 'locale', 'logging', 'mail.png', 'mailbox', 'markup.rst', 'math', 'mhlib', 'miscelaneous.rst', 'mmap', 'multiprocessing', 'numeric.rst', 'operator', 'optional_os.rst', 'optparse', 'os', 'ospath', 'pdf_contents.rst', 'persistence.rst', 'pickle', 'pipes', 'pkgutil', 'platform', 'plistlib', 'pprint', 'profile', 'profilers.rst', 'pwd', 'pyclbr', 'pydoc', 'Queue', 'readline', 'resource', 'rlcompleter', 'robotparser', 'runtime_services.rst', 'sched', 'shelve', 'shlex', 'shutil', 'signal', 'SimpleXMLRPCServer', 'site', 'smtpd', 'smtplib', 'SocketServer', 'string', 'string_services.rst', 'StringIO', 'struct', 'subprocess', 'sys', 'tabnanny', 'tarfile', 'tempfile', 'textwrap', 'threading', 'time', 'timeit', 'trace', 'traceback', 'unittest', 'unix.rst', 'urllib', 'urllib2', 'urlparse', 'uuid', 'warnings', 'weakref', 'webbrowser', 'whichdb', 'xml', 'xmlrpclib', 'zipfile', 'zipimport', 'zlib']

Pipes¶

The os module provides several functions for managing the I/O of child processes using pipes. The functions all work essentially the same way, but return different file handles depending on the type of input or output desired. For the most part, these functions are made obsolete by the subprocess module (added in Python 2.4), but there is a good chance you will encounter them if you are maintaining legacy code.

The most commonly used pipe function is popen(). It creates a new process running the command given and attaches a single stream to the input or output of that process, depending on the mode argument. While popen() functions work on Windows, some of these examples assume some sort of Unix-like shell. The descriptions of the streams also assume Unix-like terminology:

• stdin - The “standard input” stream for a process (file descriptor 0) is readable by the process. This is usually where terminal input goes.
• stdout - The “standard output” stream for a process (file descriptor 1) is writable by the process, and is used for displaying regular output to the user.
• stderr - The “standard error” stream for a process (file descriptor 2) is writable by the process, and is used for conveying error messages.

import os

print 'popen, read:'
pipe_stdout = os.popen('echo "to stdout"', 'r')
try:
    stdout_value = pipe_stdout.read()
finally:
    pipe_stdout.close()
print '\tstdout:', repr(stdout_value)

print '\npopen, write:'
pipe_stdin = os.popen('cat -', 'w')
try:
    pipe_stdin.write('\tstdin: to stdin\n')
finally:
    pipe_stdin.close()

$ python -u os_popen.py
popen, read:
        stdout: 'to stdout\n'

popen, write:
        stdin: to stdin

The caller can only read from or write to the streams associated with the child process, which limits the usefulness. The other popen() variants provide additional streams so it is possible to work with stdin, stdout, and stderr as needed.

For example, popen2() returns a write-only stream attached to stdin of the child process, and a read-only stream attached to its stdout.

import os

print 'popen2:'
pipe_stdin, pipe_stdout = os.popen2('cat -')
try:
    pipe_stdin.write('through stdin to stdout')
finally:
    pipe_stdin.close()
try:
    stdout_value = pipe_stdout.read()
finally:
    pipe_stdout.close()
print '\tpass through:', repr(stdout_value)

This simplistic example illustrates bi-directional communication. The value written to stdin is read by cat (because of the '-' argument), then written back to stdout. Obviously a more complicated process could pass other types of messages back and forth through the pipe; even serialized objects.

$ python -u os_popen2.py
popen2:
        pass through: 'through stdin to stdout'

In most cases, it is desirable to have access to both stdout and stderr. The stdout stream is used for message passing and the stderr stream is used for errors, so reading from it separately reduces the complexity for parsing any error messages. The popen3() function returns 3 open streams tied to stdin, stdout, and stderr of the new process.

import os

print 'popen3:'
pipe_stdin, pipe_stdout, pipe_stderr = os.popen3('cat -; echo ";to stderr" 1>&2')
try:
    pipe_stdin.write('through stdin to stdout')
finally:
    pipe_stdin.close()
try:
    stdout_value = pipe_stdout.read()
finally:
    pipe_stdout.close()
print '\tpass through:', repr(stdout_value)
try:
    stderr_value = pipe_stderr.read()
finally:
    pipe_stderr.close()
print '\tstderr:', repr(stderr_value)

Notice that we have to read from and close both stdout and stderr separately. There are some related to flow control and sequencing when dealing with I/O for multiple processes. The I/O is buffered, and if the caller expects to be able to read all of the data from a stream then the child process must close that stream to indicate the end-of-file. For more information on these issues, refer to the Flow Control Issues section of the Python library documentation.

$ python -u os_popen3.py
popen3:
        pass through: 'through stdin to stdout'
        stderr: ';to stderr\n'

And finally, popen4() returns 2 streams, stdin and a merged stdout/stderr. This is useful when the results of the command need to be logged, but not parsed directly.

import os

print 'popen4:'
pipe_stdin, pipe_stdout_and_stderr = os.popen4('cat -; echo ";to stderr" 1>&2')
try:
    pipe_stdin.write('through stdin to stdout')
finally:
    pipe_stdin.close()
try:
    stdout_value = pipe_stdout_and_stderr.read()
finally:
    pipe_stdout_and_stderr.close()
print '\tcombined output:', repr(stdout_value)

$ python -u os_popen4.py
popen4:
        combined output: 'through stdin to stdout;to stderr\n'

Besides accepting a single string command to be given to the shell for parsing, popen2(), popen3(), and popen4() also accept a sequence of strings (command, followed by arguments). In this case, the arguments are not processed by the shell.

import os

print 'popen2, cmd as sequence:'
pipe_stdin, pipe_stdout = os.popen2(['cat', '-'])
try:
    pipe_stdin.write('through stdin to stdout')
finally:
    pipe_stdin.close()
try:
    stdout_value = pipe_stdout.read()
finally:
    pipe_stdout.close()
print '\tpass through:', repr(stdout_value)

$ python -u os_popen2_seq.py
popen2, cmd as sequence:
        pass through: 'through stdin to stdout'

File Descriptors¶

os includes the standard set of functions for working with low-level file descriptors (integers representing open files owned by the current process). This is a lower-level API than is provided by file objects. I am going to skip over describing them here, since it is generally easier to work directly with file objects. Refer to the library documentation for details if you do need to use file descriptors.

Filesystem Permissions¶

The function os.access() can be used to test the access rights a process has for a file.

import os

print 'Testing:', __file__
print 'Exists:', os.access(__file__, os.F_OK)
print 'Readable:', os.access(__file__, os.R_OK)
print 'Writable:', os.access(__file__, os.W_OK)
print 'Executable:', os.access(__file__, os.X_OK)

Your results will vary depending on how you install the example code, but it should look something like this:

$ python os_access.py
Testing: os_access.py
Exists: True
Readable: True
Writable: True
Executable: False

The library documentation for os.access() includes two special warnings. First, there isn’t much sense in calling os.access() to test whether a file can be opened before actually calling open() on it. There is a small, but real, window of time between the two calls during which the permissions on the file could change. The other warning applies mostly to networked filesystems that extend the POSIX permission semantics. Some filesystem types may respond to the POSIX call that a process has permission to access a file, then report a failure when the attempt is made using open() for some reason not tested via the POSIX call. All in all, it is better to call open() with the required mode and catch the IOError raised if there is a problem.

More detailed information about the file can be accessed using os.stat() or os.lstat() (if you want the status of something that might be a symbolic link).

import os
import sys
import time

if len(sys.argv) == 1:
    filename = __file__
else:
    filename = sys.argv[1]

stat_info = os.stat(filename)

print 'os.stat(%s):' % filename
print '\tSize:', stat_info.st_size
print '\tPermissions:', oct(stat_info.st_mode)
print '\tOwner:', stat_info.st_uid
print '\tDevice:', stat_info.st_dev
print '\tLast modified:', time.ctime(stat_info.st_mtime)

Once again, your results will vary depending on how the example code was installed. Try passing different filenames on the command line to os_stat.py.

$ python os_stat.py
os.stat(os_stat.py):
        Size: 1516
        Permissions: 0100644
        Owner: 527
        Device: 234881026
        Last modified: Mon Mar 22 17:03:03 2010

On Unix-like systems, file permissions can be changed using os.chmod(), passing the mode as an integer. Mode values can be constructed using constants defined in the stat module. Here is an example which toggles the user’s execute permission bit:

import os
import stat

filename = 'os_stat_chmod_example.txt'
if os.path.exists(filename):
    os.unlink(filename)
f = open(filename, 'wt')
f.write('contents')
f.close()

# Determine what permissions are already set using stat
existing_permissions = stat.S_IMODE(os.stat(filename).st_mode)

if not os.access(filename, os.X_OK):
    print 'Adding execute permission'
    new_permissions = existing_permissions | stat.S_IXUSR
else:
    print 'Removing execute permission'
    # use xor to remove the user execute permission
    new_permissions = existing_permissions ^ stat.S_IXUSR

os.chmod(filename, new_permissions)
    

The script assumes you have the permissions necessary to modify the mode of the file to begin with:

$ python os_stat_chmod.py
Adding execute permission

Directories¶

There are several functions for working with directories on the filesystem, including creating, listing contents, and removing them.

import os

dir_name = 'os_directories_example'

print 'Creating', dir_name
os.makedirs(dir_name)

file_name = os.path.join(dir_name, 'example.txt')
print 'Creating', file_name
f = open(file_name, 'wt')
try:
    f.write('example file')
finally:
    f.close()

print 'Listing', dir_name
print os.listdir(dir_name)

print 'Cleaning up'
os.unlink(file_name)
os.rmdir(dir_name)

$ python os_directories.py
Creating os_directories_example
Creating os_directories_example/example.txt
Listing os_directories_example
['example.txt']
Cleaning up

There are two sets of functions for creating and deleting directories. When creating a new directory with os.mkdir(), all of the parent directories must already exist. When removing a directory with os.rmdir(), only the leaf directory (the last part of the path) is actually removed. In contrast, os.makedirs() and os.removedirs() operate on all of the nodes in the path. os.makedirs() will create any parts of the path which do not exist, and os.removedirs() will remove all of the parent directories (assuming it can).

Symbolic Links¶

For platforms and filesystems which support them, there are functions for working with symlinks.

import os, tempfile

link_name = tempfile.mktemp()

print 'Creating link %s -> %s' % (link_name, __file__)
os.symlink(__file__, link_name)

stat_info = os.lstat(link_name)
print 'Permissions:', oct(stat_info.st_mode)

print 'Points to:', os.readlink(link_name)

# Cleanup
os.unlink(link_name)

Although os includes os.tempnam() for creating temporary filenames, it is not as secure as the tempfile module and produces a RuntimeWarning message when it is used. In general it is better to use tempfile, as in this example.

$ python os_symlinks.py
Creating link /var/folders/9R/9R1t+tR02Raxzk+F71Q50U+++Uw/-Tmp-/tmpd8YDV9 -> os_symlinks.py
Permissions: 0120755
Points to: os_symlinks.py

Walking a Directory Tree¶

The function os.walk() traverses a directory recursively and for each directory generates a tuple containing the directory path, any immediate sub-directories of that path, and the names of any files in that directory. This example shows a simplistic recursive directory listing.

import os, sys

# If we are not given a path to list, use /tmp
if len(sys.argv) == 1:
    root = '/tmp'
else:
    root = sys.argv[1]

for dir_name, sub_dirs, files in os.walk(root):
    print '\n', dir_name
    # Make the subdirectory names stand out with /
    sub_dirs = [ '%s/' % n for n in sub_dirs ]
    # Mix the directory contents together
    contents = sub_dirs + files
    contents.sort()
    # Show the contents
    for c in contents:
        print '\t%s' % c

$ python os_walk.py

/tmp
        .ICE-unix/
        .X11-unix/
        .font-unix/
        4c703a9636b46
        ccc_exclude.Nme3Li
        ccc_exclude.PNgYQe
        ccc_exclude.SIH3lR
        ccc_exclude.cuT08I
        distribute-0.6.10.tar.gz
        distribute-0.6.8.tar.gz
        emacs527/
        example.db
        ics84572
        icssuis527
        launch-Pp23fO/
        launch-T9Bq1o/
        launch-lIQFqw/
        launchd-662.Iju4dh/
        pymotw_import_example.shelve
        trace_example.recurse.cover
        var_backups/

/tmp/.font-unix

/tmp/.ICE-unix

/tmp/.X11-unix

/tmp/emacs527
        server

/tmp/launch-lIQFqw
        org.x:0

/tmp/launch-Pp23fO
        Listeners

/tmp/launch-T9Bq1o
        Render

/tmp/launchd-662.Iju4dh
        sock

/tmp/var_backups

Running External Commands¶

The simplest way to run a separate command, without interacting with it at all, is os.system(). It takes a single string which is the command line to be executed by a sub-process running a shell.

import os

# Simple command
os.system('ls -l')

$ python -u os_system_example.py
total 248
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann      0 Mar 22 17:03 __init__.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann  22122 Aug 25 06:58 index.rst
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1360 Mar 22 17:03 os_access.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1347 Mar 22 17:03 os_cwd_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1499 Mar 22 17:03 os_directories.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1573 Mar 22 17:03 os_environ_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1241 Mar 22 17:03 os_exec_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1267 Mar 22 17:03 os_fork_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1703 Mar 22 17:03 os_kill_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1476 Mar 22 17:03 os_popen.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1506 May  4 08:57 os_popen2.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1528 May  4 08:56 os_popen2_seq.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1658 May  4 08:57 os_popen3.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1567 May  4 08:57 os_popen4.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1395 Mar 22 17:03 os_process_id_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1896 May  4 08:28 os_process_user_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1206 Mar 22 17:03 os_spawn_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1516 Mar 22 17:03 os_stat.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1751 Mar 22 17:03 os_stat_chmod.py
-rwxr--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann      8 Aug 29 12:42 os_stat_chmod_example.txt
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1421 May  4 09:25 os_symlinks.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1250 Mar 22 17:03 os_system_background.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1191 Mar 22 17:03 os_system_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1214 Mar 22 17:03 os_system_shell.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1499 Mar 22 17:03 os_wait_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1555 Mar 22 17:03 os_waitpid_example.py
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  dhellmann   1643 Mar 22 17:03 os_walk.py

Since the command is passed directly to the shell for processing, it can even include shell syntax such as globbing or environment variables:

import os

# Command with shell expansion
os.system('ls -ld $TMPDIR')

$ python -u os_system_shell.py
drwx------  424 dhellmann  dhellmann  14416 Aug 29 12:42 /var/folders/9R/9R1t+tR02Raxzk+F71Q50U+++Uw/-Tmp-/

Unless you explicitly run the command in the background, the call to os.system() blocks until it is complete. Standard input, output, and error from the child process are tied to the appropriate streams owned by the caller by default, but can be redirected using shell syntax.

import os
import time

print 'Calling...'
os.system('date; (sleep 3; date) &')

print 'Sleeping...'
time.sleep(5)

This is getting into shell trickery, though, and there are better ways to accomplish the same thing.

$ python -u os_system_background.py
Calling...
Sun Aug 29 12:42:02 EDT 2010
Sleeping...
Sun Aug 29 12:42:05 EDT 2010

Creating Processes with os.fork()¶

The POSIX functions fork() and exec*() (available under Mac OS X, Linux, and other UNIX variants) are exposed via the os module. Entire books have been written about reliably using these functions, so check your library or bookstore for more details than I will present here.

To create a new process as a clone of the current process, use os.fork():

import os

pid = os.fork()

if pid:
    print 'Child process id:', pid
else:
    print 'I am the child'

Your output will vary based on the state of your system each time you run the example, but it should look something like:

$ python -u os_fork_example.py
Child process id: 65309
I am the child

After the fork, you end up with two processes running the same code. To tell which one you are in, check the return value of fork(). If it is 0, you are inside the child process. If it is not 0, you are in the parent process and the return value is the process id of the child process.

From the parent process, it is possible to send the child signals. This is a bit more complicated to set up, and uses the signal module, so let’s walk through the code. First we can define a signal handler to be invoked when the signal is received.

import os
import signal
import time

def signal_usr1(signum, frame):
    "Callback invoked when a signal is received"
    pid = os.getpid()
    print 'Received USR1 in process %s' % pid

Then we fork, and in the parent pause a short amount of time before sending a USR1 signal using os.kill(). The short pause gives the child process time to set up the signal handler.

print 'Forking...'
child_pid = os.fork()
if child_pid:
    print 'PARENT: Pausing before sending signal...'
    time.sleep(1)
    print 'PARENT: Signaling %s' % child_pid
    os.kill(child_pid, signal.SIGUSR1)

In the child, we set up the signal handler and go to sleep for a while to give the parent time to send us the signal:

else:
    print 'CHILD: Setting up signal handler'
    signal.signal(signal.SIGUSR1, signal_usr1)
    print 'CHILD: Pausing to wait for signal'
    time.sleep(5)

In a real app, you probably wouldn’t need to (or want to) call sleep().

$ python os_kill_example.py
Forking...
PARENT: Pausing before sending signal...
PARENT: Signaling 65312
Forking...
CHILD: Setting up signal handler
CHILD: Pausing to wait for signal
Received USR1 in process 65312

As you see, a simple way to handle separate behavior in the child process is to check the return value of fork() and branch. For more complex behavior, you may want more code separation than a simple branch. In other cases, you may have an existing program you have to wrap. For both of these situations, you can use the os.exec*() series of functions to run another program. When you “exec” a program, the code from that program replaces the code from your existing process.

import os

child_pid = os.fork()
if child_pid:
    os.waitpid(child_pid, 0)
else:
    os.execlp('ls', 'ls', '-l', '/tmp/')

$ python os_exec_example.py
total 1624
lrwxr-xr-x  1 root       wheel          64 Aug 21 16:44 4c703a9636b46 -> /private/etc/cups/ppd/HP_LaserJet_P2015_Series__Development_.ppd
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 26 03:00 ccc_exclude.Nme3Li
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 27 03:01 ccc_exclude.PNgYQe
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 29 03:00 ccc_exclude.SIH3lR
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 28 03:00 ccc_exclude.cuT08I
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel      385641 Aug 25 06:38 distribute-0.6.10.tar.gz
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel      390582 Aug 26 09:50 distribute-0.6.8.tar.gz
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug 27 13:45 emacs527
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel       12288 Aug 29 12:41 example.db
srwxr-xr-x  1 dhellmann  wheel           0 Aug 19 12:13 ics84572
srwxr-xr-x  1 dhellmann  wheel           0 Aug  1 21:41 icssuis527
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-Pp23fO
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-T9Bq1o
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-lIQFqw
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launchd-662.Iju4dh
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel       12288 Aug 28 07:52 pymotw_import_example.shelve
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel         448 Aug 28 07:53 trace_example.recurse.cover
drwxr-xr-x  2 dhellmann  dhellmann      68 Aug 25 03:15 var_backups

There are many variations of exec*(), depending on what form you might have the arguments in, whether you want the path and environment of the parent process to be copied to the child, etc. Have a look at the library documentation to for complete details.

For all variations, the first argument is a path or filename and the remaining arguments control how that program runs. They are either passed as command line arguments or override the process “environment” (see os.environ and os.getenv).

Waiting for a Child¶

Suppose you are using multiple processes to work around the threading limitations of Python and the Global Interpreter Lock. If you start several processes to run separate tasks, you will want to wait for one or more of them to finish before starting new ones, to avoid overloading the server. There are a few different ways to do that using wait() and related functions.

If you don’t care, or know, which child process might exit first os.wait() will return as soon as any exits:

import os
import sys
import time

for i in range(3):
    print 'PARENT: Forking %s' % i
    worker_pid = os.fork()
    if not worker_pid:
        print 'WORKER %s: Starting' % i
        time.sleep(2 + i)
        print 'WORKER %s: Finishing' % i
        sys.exit(i)

for i in range(3):
    print 'PARENT: Waiting for %s' % i
    done = os.wait()
    print 'PARENT:', done

Notice that the return value from os.wait() is a tuple containing the process id and exit status (“a 16-bit number, whose low byte is the signal number that killed the process, and whose high byte is the exit status”).

$ python os_wait_example.py
PARENT: Forking 0
WORKER 0: Starting
WORKER 0: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
WORKER 1: Starting
WORKER 1: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
PARENT: Forking 2
WORKER 2: Starting
WORKER 2: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
PARENT: Forking 2
PARENT: Waiting for 0
PARENT: (65318, 0)
PARENT: Waiting for 1
PARENT: (65319, 256)
PARENT: Waiting for 2
PARENT: (65320, 512)

If you want a specific process, use os.waitpid().

import os
import sys
import time

workers = []
for i in range(3):
    print 'PARENT: Forking %s' % i
    worker_pid = os.fork()
    if not worker_pid:
        print 'WORKER %s: Starting' % i
        time.sleep(2 + i)
        print 'WORKER %s: Finishing' % i
        sys.exit(i)
    workers.append(worker_pid)

for pid in workers:
    print 'PARENT: Waiting for %s' % pid
    done = os.waitpid(pid, 0)
    print 'PARENT:', done

$ python os_waitpid_example.py
PARENT: Forking 0
WORKER 0: Starting
WORKER 0: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
WORKER 1: Starting
WORKER 1: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
PARENT: Forking 2
WORKER 2: Starting
WORKER 2: Finishing
PARENT: Forking 0
PARENT: Forking 1
PARENT: Forking 2
PARENT: Waiting for 65323
PARENT: (65323, 0)
PARENT: Waiting for 65324
PARENT: (65324, 256)
PARENT: Waiting for 65325
PARENT: (65325, 512)

wait3() and wait4() work in a similar manner, but return more detailed information about the child process with the pid, exit status, and resource usage.

Spawn¶

As a convenience, the spawn*() family of functions handles the fork() and exec*() calls for you in one statement:

import os

os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'ls', 'ls', '-l', '/tmp/')

$ python os_spawn_example.py
total 1624
lrwxr-xr-x  1 root       wheel          64 Aug 21 16:44 4c703a9636b46 -> /private/etc/cups/ppd/HP_LaserJet_P2015_Series__Development_.ppd
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 26 03:00 ccc_exclude.Nme3Li
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 27 03:01 ccc_exclude.PNgYQe
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 29 03:00 ccc_exclude.SIH3lR
-rw-------  1 root       wheel        1507 Aug 28 03:00 ccc_exclude.cuT08I
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel      385641 Aug 25 06:38 distribute-0.6.10.tar.gz
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel      390582 Aug 26 09:50 distribute-0.6.8.tar.gz
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug 27 13:45 emacs527
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel       12288 Aug 29 12:41 example.db
srwxr-xr-x  1 dhellmann  wheel           0 Aug 19 12:13 ics84572
srwxr-xr-x  1 dhellmann  wheel           0 Aug  1 21:41 icssuis527
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-Pp23fO
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-T9Bq1o
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launch-lIQFqw
drwx------  3 dhellmann  wheel         102 Aug  1 21:41 launchd-662.Iju4dh
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel       12288 Aug 28 07:52 pymotw_import_example.shelve
-rw-r--r--  1 dhellmann  wheel         448 Aug 28 07:53 trace_example.recurse.cover
drwxr-xr-x  2 dhellmann  dhellmann      68 Aug 25 03:15 var_backups